The Great Lakes consist of five lakes in North America, on the border between the United States and Canada. Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake Superior make up the greatest area of freshwater in the world. The five lakes have an area of about 100,000 square miles (250 000 square kilometres). Only one of them, Lake Michigan lies completely in the United States, the others form a natural border between the United States and Canada.

The St. Lawrence Seaway, opened in 1959, connects the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean, making it possible for cargo vessels to travel all the way to Chicago, more than a thousand miles from the coast. The lakes are also connected through a series of rivers and canals with the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico.

The Great Lakes are not all at the same sea level. Lake Superior lies at an elevation of 183 meters, while Lake Ontario lies lowest, at 74 meters above sea level. Niagara Falls, between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, causes a drop of a hundred meters. A system of locks and canals makes it possible for ships to travel between the Lakes. During the winter months, large parts of the Great Lakes freeze but icebreakers keep shipping lanes open most of the time.

The Great Lakes
Image : Phizzy at the English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/,
via Wikimedia Commons

St. Lawrence Seaway
Image: 20px|link=User:Kcida10|Kcida10 Kcida10 (talk) (Uploads)., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Niagara Falls
Image:Saffron Blaze, CC BY-SA 3.0,
via Wikimedia Commons

How the Great Lakes Were Formed

The basin of today’s lakes was formed about 2 billion years ago through volcanic activity. Recently the glaciers of the Ice Age repeatedly advanced and retreated throughout the region. They pushed rocks and other material with them and dug out a huge depression which filled itself with melting water after the last withdrawal of the glaciers, about 20,000 years ago. Together with the five Great Lakes thousands of other, smaller lakes were formed.

The Great Lakes gets most of their water from rain and snow throughout the year. Groundwater makes up most of the rest because there are only few large rivers flowing into the lakes. Due to global warming water levels have been going down in recent years.

The Great Lakes during the Ice Age
Image: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Glacial_lakes.jpg,
Public Domain

Economic Importance of the Great Lakes

The Great Lakes have contributed very much to the economic development of the United States and Canada. Millions of tons of raw material, including ore and coal, as well as industrial goods are transported along the Great Lakes every year. About 70% of all the iron ore of the United States is mined near Lake Superior. Large freighters bring it to all parts of the world.

Much of the coal produced in the Appalachian coal fields are brought to the Great Lakes by train where they are loaded onto cargo ships and exported to other areas.

Farming crops of the American Midwest, including corn and wheat are brought to the harbours along the Great Lakes where they are exported to other countries.

Because water transport is very cheap, farmers in the American Midwest and Canada can compete with their rivals in other continents.

Cargo ship on St. Lawrence Seaway
Image:Own work, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Recreation and Tourism

Millions of Americans spend much of their free time on and around the Great Lakes. Residents of Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Milwaukee and other big cities flock to the beaches to escape the stressful life of the inner cities. Sailing and other water sports are widespread due to strong winds that prevail in the Great Lakes region. Fishing is a main source of income for many people in the area.

Beach in Chicago
Image: Chris6d, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Sailing on Lake Ontario
Image: Larry Koester, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

History of the Great Lakes

The first settlers sailed down the Great Lakes about 300 years ago. In those days they were mainly fur traders who made business with Indians. The first canals in the 19th century made it possible to travel from lake to lake.

During the course of the 20th century the water quality of the Great Lakes deteriorated, largely because of pollution by cargo vessels and industries along its shores. Recently the United States and Canady have been spending millions every year to raise the quality of the world’s largest freshwater region.

Exercises

Multiple Choice Test
Words and Definitions
Match the Sentence Parts
Wrong Words
Crossword

Printable Downloads (PDF)

Word List
End of Unit Test
Key

New York is the biggest city in the United States with a population of over 8 million . It lies along the Hudson River in the southeast corner of the state that has the same name. New York is always alive – a “city that never sleeps”.

Boroughs of New York

New York is made up of five districts, called boroughs.

• Manhattan is the central part of New York. It is the smallest district with an area of only 60 square kilometres. All of the city’s major banks and the stock exchanges can be found here. It is the seat of the city’s government and the home of cultural institutions.
• Brooklyn is a major seaport and the centre of industry. It has the most residents of all boroughs and is known as the district of churches and homes.
• Queens is the largest of New York’s boroughs. It consists of rows of single-family houses and is often referred to as the city’s biggest suburb. Whites, Hispanics and Blacks live together in Queens.
• The Bronx , a residential district with many apartment buildings, is the only borough situated on the mainland.
• For many years Staten Island could only be reached by ferry. Today, the borough is connected with Brooklyn through the Verrazano – Narrows Bridge. The opening of this bridge in 1964 led many New Yorkers to move to Staten Island.

(1) Manhattan – (2) Brooklyn – (3) Queens – (4) The Bronx – (5) Staten Island
Image: Julius Schorzman , CC BY-SA 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons

Population

New York is a melting pot of different nationalities with people who have their origins all over the world. Hispanics, African Americans and people of European origin make up most of the city’s population. Ellis Island, not far from the Statue of Liberty, was once the main entry point for the millions of immigrants who have come to America in the past two centuries.

The first immigrants came from England, Germany and Scandinavia at the beginning of the 19th century. Between 1880 and 1930 Eastern Europeans, Italians and the Irish came to America. After World War II Asians, Cubans and Hispanics came to New York in large numbers. The city also has the largest Jewish community in the world.

Ellis Island – aerial view
Image :David.Clay.Photography, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Culture

New York is often said to be the cultural centre of the United States. Many famous museums are at home in the city. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has a huge collection of over 2,000 European and 4,000 American paintings, sculptures and drawings. Other famous museums are the Guggenheim and the Museum of Modern Art.

New York City is especially popular among theatre-goers. The greatest theatre district in the world is around Times Square and Broadway. About 40 theatres offer a wide range of dramas, musicals and comedy shows.

Music lovers can attend performances of New York’s Metropolitan Opera or concerts of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.

The Guggenheim Museum
Image: Jean-Christophe BENOIST, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Broadway
Image: Alex Proimos from Sydney, Australia; cropped by Beyond My Ken (talk) 00:05, 29 August 2014 (UTC), CC BY 2.0,
via Wikimedia Commons

Transportation

Like many modern megacities New York also has great traffic problems. Most foreign travellers get to New York through John F. Kennedy International Airport, one of the world’s busiest, situated in the south-eastern part of the city.

Public transport centres on a subway system which is the largest in the world. It is over 300 km long, has over 400 stations and is used by almost 4 million people every day. Because New York is such a large city many people tend to walk or, when in a hurry, go by one of the thousands of Yellow Cabs that cruise around

Yellow cabs in Manhattan
Image: Ad Meskens, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Subway station in New York
Image:  Metropolitan Transportation Authority of the State of New York, CC BY 2.0,
via Wikimedia Commons

JFK International Airport
Image : User:KenzieAbraham, CC BY-SA 4.0,
via Wikimedia Commons

History

The first Europeans were explorers who were impressed by the area’s natural harbour. In 1609 the English navigator Henry Hudson sailed up the river that is today named after him. In 1626 the Dutch set up a trading post at the southern tip of Manhattan and called it New Amsterdam. In the same year they bought Manhattan from the Indians who lived there.

New Amsterdam in 1664
Image: Johannes Vingboons, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The British took over the colony in 1664 and named it after the Duke of York. After the American Revolution New York became America’s first capital , but only for a short time. Back then about 33,000 people lived there.

In the early part of the 19th century waves of European immigrants started to come to the city. They usually worked for little money, helped boost the economy and made New York the largest city in the country. The rapid growth of the city also created problems: crime, poverty, overpopulation and pollution. In the 1970s the city went through a big economic crisis. It didn’t have enough money to pay its bills and almost went bankrupt , but recovered again some years later.

Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island in 1902
Image:  See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In recent years the city has become the target of terrorist activities. In 1993 a car bomb exploded in the basement of the World Trade Centre, killing six people. The city’s darkest hour came on September 11th , 2001 when terrorists hijacked two planes and flew them into the World Trade Centre. Both buildings collapsed— the attack killed almost three thousand people. In April 2006 developers began constructing a skyscraper called Freedom Tower at the place where the World Trade Centre once stood.

United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into the south tower of the World Trade Center complex in New York City during the September 11 attacks
Image : UA_Flight_175_hits_WTC_south_tower_9-11.jpeg: Flickr user TheMachineStops (Robert J. Fisch)derivative work: upstateNYer, CC BY-SA 2.0,
via Wikimedia Commons

Sights of New York

Statue of Liberty

Times Square

Empire State Building

Central Park

Brooklyn Bridge

Grand Central Station

9/11 Memorial

Staten Island Ferry

For over a hundred years the Statue of Liberty has been a symbol of the United States. It stands on Liberty Island and was a gift that France gave to the USA in 1886 as a symbol of friendship between the two countries . With its pedestal made of concrete the statue has a height of 93 metres. It represents a woman looking out over the harbour. On her head is a crown and in her hand a torch. Although tourists can go up to the observation deck in the crown, the torch itself is closed to all visitors.

Statue of Liberty
Image:  “Liberty Island photo D Ramey Logan.jpg 
from Wikimedia Commons byD Ramey Logan, CC-BY 4.0“

Times Square, where 42nd Street and Broadway meet, is often called Crossroads of the World. Millions of people see it on television every New Year’s Eve. It got its name because the New York Times building was originally located there. Today it is home to theatres and cinemas with many electronic billboards surrounding the square.

Times Square
Image:  Terabass, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

The Empire State Building is one of the best known buildings in the world. Located in the middle of Manhattan, the steel framed structure has 102 storeys and a height of 381 metres. Built in 1931, it was the first building of such a tremendous height. For over twenty years it was the tallest building in the world and the tallest building of New York until the construction of the World Trade Centre in the 1970s. The building has appeared in famous films like King Kong and Superman. About 2 million tourists visit the Empire State Building every year.

Empire State Building
Image :  Sam Valadi, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Central Park is the largest and most important public park in Manhattan. It extends for about 4km and has an area of 340 hectares. The park includes lakes, ice rinks, fountains, playgrounds, bicycle paths and other facilities. When it was built in the 1840s the park was far away from the city’s centre. Some of it was farming area another part was swampy, wet land that had to be laid dry. It took 20,000 workers more than 15 years to remove thousands of trees and complete the park.

Central Park
Image:  Ingfbruno, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Brooklyn Bridge, built between 1869 and 1883 connects Manhattan with New York’s most populous borough, Brooklyn. The 1.5 km long bridge, which spans the East River, is one of the greatest engineering achievements of the 19th century.

Brooklyn Bridge
Image: Suiseiseki, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Grand Central Station is one of the most beautiful buildings of the city. It is the busiest train station in the world with about 800 000 people passing through it every day. It’s well-known for its wonderful ceiling with a mural of golden leaves.

Grand Central Station
Image:  Metropolitan Transportation Authority from United States of America, 
CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

The 9/11 memorial is a place that commemorates the tragic events that happened on September 11, 2001.

9/11 memorial
Image : Dave Za>, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

The Staten Island ferry is a passenger boat that brings people from Manhattan to Staten Island. It operates 25 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Staten Island Ferry
Image :  InSapphoWeTrust, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Neighbourhoods of Manhattan

Neighbourhoods of Manhattan

Image: No machine-readable author provided. Roke~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).,
 CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Videos

Ellis Island
Discover New York’s Boroughs
Times Square
The 9/11 Memorial

Exercises

Multiple Choice Test
TRUE or FALSE ?
Words and Definitions 1
Words and Definitions 2
Order the Events
Sights of New York – Missing Word Cloze
New York – Famous Sights
JFK – New York’s International Airport – Multiple Choice Cloze
Crossword

Word Search

Jigsaw Puzzle

Printable Downloads (PDF)

Word List
End of Unit Test
Key

Capital punishment, also referred to as the death penalty, is the killing of a criminal who has been sentenced to death by a court. In most cases it is used for murder, but the death penalty has also been applied to rape, treason and other crimes.

Although most countries around the world have abolished capital punishment, it is still a form of punishment in the United States, where it is a much-discussed topic, China and about 60 other countries, including many states of the Middle East.

Capital Punishment Around the World
Image:Kamalthebest, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

History of Capital Punishment

The death penalty goes back a long time in history. Almost all ancient civilizations have used some form of killing people for a serious crime. In Ancient Greece, many criminals were put to death, including Socrates, who was killed by a poisonous drink. During the Middle Ages thousands of Europeans were executed because they were against the church. In revolutionary France 40,000 people were executed by the guillotine, a beheading machine.

Towards the end of the 18th century nations started banning the death penalty as a form of punishment. In the last two centuries many countries have abolished capital punishment completely, others use it only during wartimes. Many of the world’s big religions have used the death penalty over the centuries.

Guillotine during the French Revolution
Image: Musée de la Révolution française, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Arguments for and against the death penalty

The Death Penalty in the USA

In the United States about half of all the states still exercise the death penalty. After it had been suspended by the US Supreme Court, the highest court of the country overturned its ruling in 1976 and stated that the death penalty corresponded with the constitution. Since then over 1300 executions have been carried out. Although California is the state with the most death row inmates, Texas has carried out the most executions of all American states.

After the turn of the millennium some states reviewed their attitude towards capital punishment. Illinois, for example, declared that there would be no further executions after a series of cases had shown that some defendants were wrongfully convicted or innocent.

In 2005 the American Supreme Court ruled that executing a mentally disabled person was against the constitution.

Death Penalty by State

Image:Death Penalty Information Center –
https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/state-by-state

Methods of Execution

Hanging

Hanging was used as a main method of execution throughout the Middle Ages up to the beginning of the 20th century. It is still used in some states today. This method of execution depends on the length and strength of the rope. The noose is waxed or oiled so that it slides better. The criminal stands on a platform and falls through a trap door. Death comes fast if the neck snaps but slowly if a prisoner dies from suffocation.

Firing Squad

An inmate stands or sits in front of a wall with sandbags around him to absorb blood. The firing squad is made up of five to six shooters, one of whom gets blank ammunition. In most cases the prisoner is blindfolded before an execution.

Electric Chair

Towards the end of the 19th century governments looked for a more humane way of killing. The first electrocution took place in 1890 in New York. Today, the electric chair is only used in some states. An inmate is strapped into a wooden chair with metal clips attached to his arms and legs. A wet sponge is put between a shaven head and a metal plate so that electricity can pass better. About 500 – 2000 volts of electricity pass through the body for about half a minute, then a doctor comes to determine death. Electrocution results in severe burns of the body.

Gas chamber

In the 1920s the first prisoner was executed by gas in Nevada. It was thought to be an alternative to the electric chair. The prisoner sits in a chair while cyanide gas flows into an airtight chamber. Eyewitnesses have reported that death seems to be very painful as inmates struggle against their fate. The heart does not get the oxygen that it needs.

Lethal injection

Lethal injection is the primary method of killing an inmate in the United States. It was first used in 1977 in Oklahoma.

A prisoner is strapped to a gurney and a needle is inserted into the bloodstream. The execution takes place in three stages. First, an anaesthetic puts them to sleep, then a solution paralyses muscles and stops breathing. The third liquid is potassium chloride, a chemical that stops the heart from beating. Death comes in the form of a heart attack.

While doctors proclaim the death of an inmate, they are not allowed to take part in the killing, because it is unethical. This is done by special wardens of the prison.

Lethal injection table
Image: Ken Piorkowski, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Methods of execution in ancient times

Different forms of execution have dominated civilisations throughout history. Sometimes criminals were strapped to a wheel, where their bones and legs were broken. During the Inquisition of the Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church persecuted many non-believers. Especially women, convicted as witches, were burned to death at a stake.

Beheading was a common form of killing in ancient times. The most popular instrument was the guillotine, which decapitated thousands of criminals and innocent civilians during the French Revolution.

In ancient times crucifixion was a widespread method of execution. People were nailed to the cross and died a slow and painful death. It was practised until the 4th century AD. Stoning and beating were also common methods of execution. They are still used in some states of the Middle East and Asia.

Death Penalty Statistics

Here are some statistics about the death penalty in the United States. Source : Death Penalty Information Centre – http://deathpenaltyinfo.org

Additional Resources

• Additional material provided by Amnesty International

Video

History of the Death Penalty in the US

Exercises

Multiple Choice Test
Death Penalty Statistics – TRUE or FALSE
Words and Definitions 1
Words and Definitions 2
Multiple Choice Cloze
Troy Davis: A Wrongful Execution – Missing Word Cloze
Capital Punishment Crossword